Beyond Earth (ATWG) - Chapter 3 - View Of Global Leadership by Martin Schwab

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Chapter 3

Views of Global Leadership: Government, Business, Academia, and Faith

By Martin Schwab


"As commerce, education, and the rapid transition of thought and matter, by telegraph and steam have changed everything, I rather believe that the great Maker is preparing the world to become one nation, speaking one language, a consummation which will render armies and navies no longer necessary.


President Ulysses S. Grant, 1873. (1)

Introduction

The theme of this chapter is integration of different views for human activity beyond Earth from leaders around our globe, across professions, and through time. The following compilation of extended quotes can be used as an inspirational guide by other leaders in government, business, academia, and faith. It is these leaders who have the potential by working together and with general populations to chart a new course for human relations that fully utilizes outer space without limiting any of our inherent technical or human capabilities. The path of venturing together in outer space has been at our doorstep for many decades. The time has come to enable our human pioneers from all nations to go beyond the Earth-moon system on our behalf.

Leaders of Government

Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the People's Republic of China - June 30, 2004

One of the chief objectives of this chapter is to promote better understanding of views between the West and China. As this book is written primarily by authors who reside and work in the West, it is appropriate to start this chapter with an official view of the leadership of China for the future of humans in space: Outer space belongs to mankind. It is not only beneficial to enhancing international security and stability but also in the common interests of all states to ensure the peaceful uses of outer space and to prevent the weaponization of an arms race in outer space. China has always stood for the peaceful uses of outer space and against introducing weapons into outer space. Under current circumstances, especially with the development of outer space technologies and of international security situation, the risk of weaponization of outer space does exist. This does not accord with the interests of any state. Therefore the international community should take effective protective measures, including negotiation of relevant international legal instruments, to ensure the uses of outer space for peaceful purposes only. In June 2002, China, together with Russia, Vietnam, Indonesia, Belarus, Zimbabwe and Syria submitted to the Conference of [sic] Disarmament in Geneva a working paper entitled "Possible Elements for a Future International Legal Agreement on the Prevention of the Deployment of Weapons in Outer Space, and the Threat or Use of Force Against Outer Objects," which has gained positive responses from many states. China is ready, together with the international community, to make unremitting efforts to maintain the peace and tranquility of outer space. (2)

The critical point that China and perhaps the rest of the international community, including many in the West do not typically address is the duty of U.S. leaders to maintain assets in space to defend its homeland from a ballistic missile attack, not necessarily from China. In essence, the counterargument to the above view of China is that unless there is true peace and tranquility on Earth, it is irresponsible for U.S. leaders to limit continued development of potential capabilities in space or anywhere else. Of course, the argument of the right to prepare for self-defense applies to any sovereign state or polity, even to "rogue states." It is commonly understood among security strategists that one reason why war has perpetuated itself throughout human history is because the shield enables the sword which yields anxiety, even if the sword is not used. The rest of the views in this chapter hint at how peace on Earth, through a common human endeavor in space might be achieved, as the need for this endeavor is perhaps more inherent in human nature than violence. In this way, lasting peace and tranquility in space (which requires much more than the absence of hostile postures) might be achieved as well.

President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (India)

At the 90th Session of the Indian Science Congress in January 2003, President Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam of India (a position distinct from the Prime Minister of India) addressed many human needs, including the creation of a knowledge society in the 21st century, clean energy for future generations, space solar power to enable water desalination, international cooperation against dangerous asteroids, commercialization of space access and socioeconomic development, and cited poverty as a dynamic of terrorism and violence. President Kalam went on to say: Above all, we must recognize the necessity for the world's space community to avoid terrestrial geo-political conflict to be drawn into outer space, thus threatening the space assets belonging to all mankind. This leads on to the need for an International Space Force made up of all nations willing to participate and contribute to protect world space assets in a manner, which will enable peaceful use of space on a global cooperative basis without the looming threat of conflict on Earth. I am sure India would contribute its best to the creation and sustenance of such an International Space Force. (3)

We will return to this far reaching idea for an International Space Force by President Kalam after we examine a few words spoken by the current leaders of the two main actors of the Cold War, President George W. Bush and President Vladimir Putin. When reading these selections, the reader is invited to keep an eye toward the "art of the possible" concerning relations between the U.S. and China, two countries that could very well develop a new cold war during the 21st century. The concept of the "art of the possible" was used during a 2002 conversation between former Assistant U.S. Secretary of State Richard Armitage and former NASA administrator Sean O'Keefe to describe the direction of engagement and cooperation that the U.S. should take in regard to Sino-American relations in outer space. (4)

President George W. Bush (USA)

While the two elections of President George W. Bush have revealed deep political divides among U.S. citizens and within the transatlantic alliance, it must also be noted that President Bush is the first president since John F. Kennedy to have set NASA and Congress in a clear direction, to our "Moon, Mars and Beyond." (5) President Kennedy's declaration to "put a man on the Moon in this decade," was a space vision articulated within the Cold War reality of competing ideologies presented to the world by the U.S. and the Soviet Union. President George W. Bush's space exploration vision also co-exists within geopolitical realities on Earth. With a little bit of imagination, Moon, Mars and Beyond can be conducted with cognizance toward the more immediate objective of "winning hearts and minds" across our globe, a way to bring the current global War on Terror to a rapid close.


President George W. Bush Speaking with the crew of Space Shuttle Discovery on August 2, 2005, the first successful human spaceflight by the U.S. since the Space Shuttle Columbia tragedy on February 1, 2003:

THE PRESIDENT: Good morning. Thank you for taking my phone call. I just wanted to tell you all how proud the American people are of our astronauts. I want to thank you for being risk-takers for the sake of exploration. I want to welcome our Japanese and Australian and Russian friends. And I wish you Godspeed in your mission. I know you've got very important work to do ahead of you. We look forward to seeing the successful completion of this mission. And, obviously, as you prepare to come back, a lot of Americans will be praying for a safe return. So it's great talking to you. Thanks for being such great examples of courage for a lot of our fellow citizens.

COMMANDER COLLINS: Thank you very much, Mr. President. We want to tell you that we really enjoy what we're doing, we really believe in our mission, and we believe in space exploration and getting people off the planet and seeing what's out there. So the steps that we're taking right now are really worth it, and we want everybody to know that. And thank you very much for taking the time out of your busy schedule to talk to us.

THE PRESIDENT: Well, listen, I want to thank you, Commander, and thank your fellow astronauts there. I agree with you — I think what you're doing is really important. And you've got a strong supporter for your mission here in the White House. I will tell you Laura went down and watched the launch in Florida, with my little brother, Jeb, and came back all excited about the energy that — there on the East Coast of Florida. But we're with you, and wish you all the very best. Thanks for taking my phone call. Now get back to work.

COMMANDER COLLINS: Thank you very much, sir. We did fly over Texas today and had a good look at it. It was beautiful. Have a good day.

THE PRESIDENT: Thank you (laughter). (6)


From the President's Vision for Space Exploration, January 14, 2004:

We need to see and examine and touch for ourselves. And only human beings are capable of adapting to the inevitable uncertainties posed by space travel...We do not know where this journey will end, yet we know this: ''human beings are headed into the cosmos ''[bold added]. And along this journey we'll make many technological breakthroughs. We don't know yet what those breakthroughs will be, but we can be certain they'll come, and that our efforts will be repaid many times over. We may discover resources on the moon or Mars that will boggle the imagination, that will test our limits to dream....''We'll invite other nations ''[bold added] to share the challenges and opportunities of this new era of discovery. The vision I outline today is a journey, not a race, and I call on other nations to join us on this journey, in a ''spirit of cooperation and friendship ''[bold added]...May God bless. (7)


From the National Security Strategy of the United States of America, 2002:

...no nation can build a safer, better world alone...The magnitude of our shared responsibilities makes our disagreements look so small...We have our best chance since the rise of the nation-state in the 17th century to build a world where the great powers compete in peace instead of prepare for war... (8)

President Vladimir Putin (Russia)

In April 2004, Russian President Vladimir Putin reaffirmed his support for the demilitarization of space, but added that Russia [like China] must be ready to counter moves by "others." He did not mention the U.S. specifically. For many years, space has been part of military-political rivalry...Now we must do everything to demilitarize [bold added] space and turn it into the arena of peaceful cooperation... We will be striving to prevent space from being an arena of military-political confrontation, but we all understand very well that this situation still exists now and will continue to exist for quite a long time... (9)

What is most interesting is that Putin, at least in this Associated Press article and allowing for translation error, calls for the complete demilitarization of space, not merely for countries to pledge to not weaponize space. Despite pleading for peaceful cooperation, in order to maintain Russia's nuclear deterrent capability, in February 2004 Russia tested a new weapon designed to elude missile defense systems such as the one the U.S. is developing, which could ultimately have components in space. (10)

Thomas Hobbes (17th century philosopher)

Before we venture into the darkness of Hobbesian philosophy let us return for a moment to President Kalam's quote from the beginning of this chapter calling for an International Space Force to guard against weaponization of space. Assuming that the quality of space surveillance, inspection, and verification increases with more partners and more capabilities over time, a critical question remains: Should a supranational organization be allowed to override the sovereignty of a single nation-state or coalition of nation-states in the interests of global security and harmony? How can war, poverty and global insecurity be alleviated in our world without creating a global hegemon that impinges on the liberty of the human spirit?

While Thomas Hobbes was not a political leader, his philosophy helped to shape our understanding of the very relationship between people and government and continues to explain the balance of power relationship among nation-states today. In his famous 1651 work, Hobbes posits Leviathan, a super-powerful government force that dominates all. Leviathan, as explained in more detail by Hobbes below is in a formal sense non-existent in our world today, with the possible exception of the U.S. military. Some strategists conclude that the U.S. military tries to act as Leviathan and is thus the main problem in our world system. Other strategists believe that the U.S. military needs to preserve and extend its Leviathan status in space and on Earth, for the good of peace and prosperity in our world system. These are complicated philosophical and strategic questions. However, our world community needs to fast reach a conclusion on this age-old intellectual divide. Here's why. Recent war games conducted by the U.S. military have revealed an escalatory nature of conflict when weapons are used to destroy a nation-state's technical means, or "spy satellites." (11) These satellites are also used to verify peaceful deterrent postures of other nation-states' ballistic missiles in an increasingly multi-polar world. Under many different scenarios, human civilization is in jeopardy with the advent of this type of confusing conflict in the space-Earth arena, whether the U.S. is involved in a given incident or not.

In Leviathan, Hobbes argues: For the laws of nature (as justice, equity, modesty, mercy and in sum, ''doing to others as we would be done to'') of themselves, without the terror of some power, to cause them to be observed, are contrary to our natural passions, that carry us to partiality, pride, revenge and the like...in the first place, I put for a general inclination of all mankind, a perpetual and restless desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death...During the time men live without a common power to keep them all in awe, they are in that condition which is called war; and such a war, as is of every man, against every man...Where there is no common power, there is no law, where no law, no injustice. Force and fraud, are in war the cardinal virtues. (12)

Hobbes may or may not be right about force and fraud being cardinal virtues in war, but he is undeniably correct about the positive utility that fear can provide to social order. However, we may not need Hobbes' monolithic Leviathan of government, backed by a global military power, to promote order in our world. Peace need not be imposed on us through the power of hierarchy in space or on Earth. The prestige of participation in a common global endeavor in space could very well substitute for the power to keep "all in awe" through brutish coercive force exercised by governments.

Even if Earth-bound governments were able to construct sophisticated, detailed, and transparent agreements, codes, and treaties, and even an international rapid reaction force against space weaponization, do human beings really want their governments to do any of this? While treaties may have slowed the process of human self-destruction using different classes of weapons, history has shown repeatedly that treaties themselves, as constituted among nation-states, are inherently irrelevant over time. A hypothesis for contemplation: In the age of space exploration, treaties devised to balance power on Earth are unnatural interferences to the unique agencies that outer space presents for lasting cooperation among human groups, including nation-states.

President John F. Kennedy (USA)

President John F. Kennedy was the first global leader who dared humankind to reach beyond Earth. Soon thereafter, the Kennedy administration and hundreds of millions of others stared deep into the abyss of the Hobbesian doctrine of mutually assured destruction during the Cuban Missile Crisis. President Kennedy's spoken record may be a more relevant guide to the 21st century political environment of space exploration than the philosophy of Thomas Hobbes.


From address at Rice University on the Nation's Space Effort, Houston, Texas, September 12, 1962:

....Many years ago the great British explorer George Mallory, who was to die on Mount Everest, was asked why did he want to climb it. He said, "Because it is there." Well, space is there, and we're going to climb it, and the moon and the planets are there, and new hopes for knowledge and peace are there. And, therefore, as we set sail we ask God's blessing on the most hazardous and dangerous and greatest adventure on which man has ever embarked. (13)


Cuban Missile Crisis, October 16-28, 1962

With the significant exception of the phrase "new hopes for knowledge and peace are there," President Kennedy's comments above, spoken before the Cuban Missile Crisis, reflect the U.S. tradition of "manifest destiny," perhaps in an effort to keep the U.S. Congress excited about human space exploration. By contrast, President Kennedy's address at the United Nations following the Cuban Missile Crisis includes the concept of "human destiny."


From address before the 18th General Assembly of the United Nations, New York, September 20, 1963:

Space offers no problems of sovereignty; by resolution of this Assembly, the members of the United Nations have foresworn any claim to territorial rights in outer space or on celestial bodies, and declared that international law and the United Nations Charter will apply. Why, therefore, should man's first flight to the moon be a matter of national competition [bold added]? Why should the United States and the Soviet Union, in preparing for such expeditions, become involved in immense duplications of research, construction, and expenditure? Surely we should explore whether the scientists and astronauts of our two countries - indeed ''of all the world [bold added]cannot work together in the conquest of space, sending someday in this decade to the moon not the representatives of a single nation, but the representatives of all of our countries...A global system of satellites could provide communication and weather information for all corners of the Earth.... The United Nations, building on its successes and learning from its failures, must be developed into a genuine world security system [bold added]. But peace does not rest in charters and covenants alone. It lies in the hearts and minds of all people. And if it is cast out there, then no act, no pact, no treaty, no organization can hope to preserve it without the support and the wholehearted commitment of all people. So let us not rest all our hopes on parchment and on paper; let us strive to build peace, a desire for peace, a willingness to work for peace, in the hearts and minds of all our people. I believe that we can. I believe the problems of human destiny are not beyond the reach of human beings... (14)

President Kennedy's notion of a "world security system" in which all countries take part (as distinct from Hobbes' Leviathan) is comparable in structure and tone with President Kalam's current idea, described earlier for an "International Space Force" that multiple countries could maintain.

President Richard M. Nixon (USA)

The idea that peace on Earth can be furthered by a common human endeavor in space is a vision shared by leaders across the ideological spectrum. While President Nixon's legacy in regard to an expanded mission for NASA is not favorable, it was during the Nixon administration that the "handshake in space" between U.S. and Soviet space pioneers - the 1975 Apollo-Soyuz mission - was planned. During ongoing armed conflict in Vietnam and with internal political division erupting into violence in the U.S., Nixon was well aware of the historic importance of the Moon landings.


Interplanetary Conversation [sic] from the White House to Apollo 11 Crew on the Moon, July 20, 1969(15)

THE PRESIDENT: ... For one priceless moment in the history of man, all of the people on this Earth are truly one, one in their pride in what you have done and one in our prayers that you will return safely to Earth. ASTRONAUT ARMSTRONG: ...Thank You, Mr. President. It is a great honor and privilege for us to be here representing not only the United States, but men of peaceable nations, men with an interest and curiosity, and men with a vision for the future. It is an honor for us to be able to participate here today. (16)

On October 15, 2003, the Chinese people experienced this same universal pride with their historic first human spaceflight, and accepted accolades from around our world. Today, the questions of lasting social reform within China and political harmony between China and the U.S. remain unanswered. How might the promise of outer space be exploited by both sides to affect a predictable and preferable outcome of this critical bilateral relationship in our world system? The next section offers one suggestion.

The United Nations


From the Third United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (UNISPACE III), The Space Millennium: Vienna Declaration on Space and Human Development, July 30, 1999:

... action should be taken: ... To improve the international coordination of activities related to near-Earth Objects, harmonizing the worldwide efforts directed at identification, follow-up observations and orbit prediction, while ''at the same time ''[bold added] giving consideration to developing a common strategy that would include future activities [countermeasures] related to near-Earth Objects ... (17) The obvious and primary responsibility for the leaders of the U.S., China, and all nations to undertake together is the rapid construction of countermeasures against the never-ending hazard to Earth from near Earth objects (NEOs) on Earth crossing orbits. It only takes one unseen large or very fast moving and dense asteroid or comet - one missed object by our sporadically funded professional and amateur astronomers - to wreck the prospects of continued human evolution, on Earth and into the Cosmos.

Much has been said and presented using PowerPoint presentations on this particular global threat. Perhaps the most engaging event on this topic to date was the 2004 Planetary Defense Conference: Protecting Earth from Asteroids, held in Orange County, California from February 23-26, 2004, sponsored by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics (AIAA) and The Aerospace Corporation. Though not technically "global leaders," senior scientists and policy analysts from the U.S., Europe and Russia presented ideas for countermeasures to NEOs. Most of the presentations were recorded on digital video and are available online at:

http://www.aero.org/support/planetarydefense/index.html as of January 20, 2006. (18)

The State of California (USA)

California is itself is one of the largest and most globally integrated economies in our world system, and deserves the title of "global leader." It is also one of the closest U.S. states in geographical terms to China.

California has produced more bipartisan leadership on the issue of planetary defense than any other U.S. state. On March 24, 1993, the late U.S. Representative, George Brown (Democrat, California) held Congressional hearings on the NEO threat before the House Committee on Science, Space, and Technology. At those hearings, he said: If some day in the future we discover well in advance that an asteroid that is big enough to cause a mass extinction is going to hit the Earth, and then we alter the course of that asteroid so that it does not hit us, it will be one of the most important accomplishments in all of human history. (19)


In 2002, U.S. Representative Dana Rohrabacher (Republican, California) commented:

So this is a real threat, but it is not something we have to fear. It is something we have to look at and try to find a way to identify threats. It is called Home Planet Defense. We need to pay some attention to it; and then if an asteroid does threaten us, we will be able to identify it far in advance and deter it from its path so it would not hurt the people of the world. (20)

Leaders of Business

Elon Musk, CEO, SpaceX (USA)

While Elon Musk's comments below articulate a national rather than a global perspective, his ideas are representative of space entrepreneurs from around our world.


From testimony before the Joint Hearing on Commercial Human Spaceflight, U.S. Senate Science, Commerce and Technology Subcommittee on Space; U.S. House of Representatives Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics, July 24, 2003:

It is despairing to consider that the cost and reliability of access to space have barely changed since the Apollo era over three decades ago. Yet in virtually every other field of technology, we have made great strides in reducing cost and increasing capability, often in ways we did not dream existed....To address this problem, we must create a fertile environment for new space access companies that brings to bear the same free market forces that have made our country the greatest economic power in the world. We are at a crucial turning point today. The recent entrepreneurial activity in space (my company perhaps included) shows promise, but is still embryonic and fragile. It is very important that our government in all its forms proactively adopt a nurturing and supportive approach to new launch vehicle developments, whether orbital or sub-orbital, manned or unmanned....If you doubt that we can possibly see such progress in space access, please reflect for a moment that the Internet, originally a DARPA [U.S. Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency] funded project, showed negligible growth for over two decades until private enterprise entered the picture. At that point, growth accelerated by more than a factor of ten....

The market for satellite delivery, while significant, has limitations in size and application. I suspect the far larger market in the long term is serving people that wish to travel to space for enjoyment. For many people, as shown by a number of marketing studies, this is the fulfillment of a lifelong dream and they are willing to spend a substantial portion of their savings to see that dream realized... If we believe humanity should one day expand to the stars, then people must have some way to see for themselves what space is all about. They must share in its wonders and experience firsthand its meaning. And, in so doing, open the doorway to space for all. (21)

Jean-Marie Luton, Chairman and Jean-Yves Le Gall, Chief Executive Officer, Arianespace (France)

There is no better representative of the views of international space business than Arianespace of France. Its Ariane 5 is generally regarded as the most reliable launcher on Earth. The following statements, written by the above leaders of Arianespace are taken from their 2004 annual report, and are couched in somewhat different language than the other selections in this chapter. Still, they reveal for us a sense of responsibility to a specific global region (Europe), and a sense of global outreach and teamwork, a template perhaps for the future of humans in space: ...our tradition of success...has led international operators to choose our launch services for around two-thirds of the commercial satellites now in orbit...Successful launches in 2004 provided further confirmation of the maturity of the standard Ariane 5G launcher. The Ariane 5G performed three missions, boosting Rosetta on a ten-year voyage toward the comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko; Anik F2, the world's largest communications satellite; and the Helios 2A military satellite, along with six auxiliary payloads. The heavy-lift Ariane 5 ECA made a successful return to flight on February 12, 2005, establishing its credibility and confirming Ariane 5's critical role at the core of the strategic challenges facing Europe...giving Europe invaluable new assets. Arianespace's launch services offer is three-pronged, comprising the Ariane 5 heavy lifter, the Soyuz medium launcher and the Vega small launcher. This family of launchers will be operational at the Guiana Space Center in French Guiana starting in 2008...The launch backup agreement set up with Boeing Launch Services and Mitsubishi Heavy Industries through the Launch Services Alliance is an additional commercial advantage for Arianespace...The launch of DirecTV 7SD by Sea Launch [an international subsidiary of Boeing] in May 2004 provided clear proof that the Alliance is now bringing concrete benefits to our customers... We take a long-term vision of our business, based on innovation of course, but above all on pragmatism. We analyzed our situation in depth in 2004, taking actions to guarantee that our company will continue to play a major international role in the coming years. In collaboration with partners from around the world, Arianespace is already building solid, broad-based foundations for the future: consolidating Ariane 5's reliability, serving the International Space Station, participating in future space exploration programs, developing the Launch Services Alliance, designing the next generation of launchers and much more. (22)

John B. Higginbotham, Founder and Managing Director, SpaceVest Capital and Director Emeritus, Space Foundation (USA)

John B. Higginbotham leads SpaceVest Capital, a major U.S. venture capital firm "investing in advanced technologies to provide compelling solutions for rapidly growing new markets." He asks whether nation-states or even citizens within nation-states want rocket boosters to become so cheap and accessible that intermediate-range ballistic missile technology can be purchased on the open market for around $15,000. The summer before China made its historic human spaceflight, Higginbotham recognized that China was "for real" in space. From a commercial perspective, Higginbotham was excited because he believes that the U.S. responds even better to economic competition than to new security threats. (23)


From testimony before the President's Commission on Moon, Mars and Beyond, New York, May 4, 2004:

Few are against space, for the civil programs do bring a source of wonderment, pride or entertainment. But few see many of the [space] initiatives as critical to the technological and economic fabric of the nation. This arises from a fundamental lack of understanding of the deep dependencies of the nation's economy and security on the capabilities of the [space] industry...College curricula that provide an interdisciplinary education relevant to the space industry should be promoted and expanded. Such educational initiatives are critical if we are to have the talent we will need five, ten, fifteen and twenty years out, to develop the systems, manage the programs and create the businesses that will sustain the vision...technologies are not products...the skills needed to translate potential into capabilities and capabilities into functionality are as unique and sophisticated in the business world as they are in the technology world...In other words, creating commercial value from the initiative is the key to generating sustainable resources to support the initiative thus ensuring the permanent presence of humans in space. ...Our parents faced a world war, a cold war and a moon race. They accepted the risks, paid what it cost and accomplished the impossible. In short, they did their duty and in so doing ensured the very freedom that allows us the privilege of gathering today. Our children face new threats, a challenging world and a complex future. They will need the knowledge, protection and inspiration that this initiative will create for them. It is now our time to do our duty and proceed with this initiative. Go launch and...Godspeed.(24)

Leaders of Academia

Dr. John Thomas, Dean of the School of Business, La Sierra University, Riverside, California (USA)

Dean Thomas was the founder and leader of the La Sierra University Students in Free Enterprise (SIFE) team that won five years of international championships, and in this chapter he provides a critical link between the global views of those in business and those in academia: As Ben Bova said pointedly so many years ago, "The way out is up!" The exploration of space presents limitless possibilities for humanity—economic, political, cultural, technological, scientific, and spiritual. While creating new sources of existing resources, opportunities to discover unimaginable new ones, the potential for contact with new civilizations, and the chance to resolve some of the Earth's pressing political problems, it also presents a unique and exhilarating challenge to the human spirit. Space is truly a new frontier, and as such will press us beyond ourselves, urging us on to new levels of achievement and discovery (original contribution by Dr. John Thomas).

Professor Joanne Gabrynowicz, Director, National Remote Sensing and Space Law Center, University of Mississippi School of Law (USA)

Professor Joanne Gabrynowicz is a long-time advocate for the rule of law in space. Her work provides a solid intellectual foundation for expanding human civilization into outer space. Much of her contributions are grounded philosophically in the Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space Including the Moon and other Celestial Bodies, also known as the 1967 "Outer Space Treaty." (25) The following quote is taken from an article she published in Space News in 1999. Gabrynowicz skillfully disputes the claim that the Outer Space Treaty is useless simply because it is outdated in regard to issues like nuclear proliferation and the commercialization of space. She then presents her view of the larger meaning of the Outer Space Treaty in guiding the course of human events in outer space:

...the U.S. Constitution guarantees due process - a term no less ambiguous than "peaceful purposes" [term used repeatedly in the Outer Space Treaty] - but it was initially limited by the legal institution of slavery. Seventy-seven years later, when the specific crisis of slavery became obsolete, due process was again interpreted and resulted in the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. The solution was to amend the Constitution, not deem it useless. Slavery, to be sure, is very different from military space issues. But it was as significant and as difficult a national issue, involving an actual, not a potential war...the law can manage grave issues. Like the Constitution, the treaties can be amended. Whether they are depends on political will...space is, and has been for three decades, a weapons-free, peaceful, legal, political and operational environment due in large part to the rule of law and diplomatic measures used to prevent hostilities...Ultimately, humans have only two ways to resolve conflict: through agreement or by fighting. At the level of nations this means law or war. (26)

Professor David Koplow, Co-Director of the Center for Applied Legal Studies at Georgetown University Law Center, Former Special Assistant to the Director of the U.S. Arms Control and Disarmament Agency and Former Deputy General Counsel (International Affairs) at the U.S. Department of Defense

The contentious arms control negotiations process has the potential to create and reinforce deep suspicions among nation-states, in part due to the dynamics created by inevitable internal factions that may be present in any given nation-state during negotiations. Professor Koplow shares from his experience what may be useful when and if the major powers begin negotiating treaties or agreements on weapons in outer space.


Comments made at Homeplanet Defense Institute Open Seminar 1, U.S./EU/China Strategic Policies in Space: Balance of Power or International Cooperation? Arlington, Virginia, October 14, 2003:

Nobody should ever be surprised by how difficult it is to try to develop a multilateral treaty on an important topic like the eventual military uses of weapons in outer space... One formula for success, one of the few things that reliably work in this field is to negotiate and solemnly undertake the obligation not to do the things you were never going to do anyway. That was the formula that we found for the Outer Space Treaty, which for the most part does not prohibit things that the superpowers were not already committed to forego unilaterally. That is also true for just about everything else in the field of arms control... even if all a treaty does is codify a country's current expectations, plans and capabilities, that does have some beneficial long term effect. Even the Outer Space Treaty which we already have identified does not in fact change very much nonetheless contributes to a longer term stability...The law does shape expectations, it does help create conditions of legitimacy and appropriateness...It is a little bit harder to get money to do things that are illegal. It doesn't mean that it can't be done. There are plenty of instances of countries pursuing covert/illegal programs but it is harder. (27)

International Space University (ISU), Strasbourg, France

Since its founding in 1987, ISU has graduated more than 2,200 students from 87 countries, providing graduate-level training to the future leaders of an emerging global space community at locations around our world. ISU offers a unique curriculum of space science, space engineering, systems engineering, space policy and law, business and management and space and society. ISU also serves as a neutral international forum for the exchange of knowledge and ideas on challenging issues related to space, both in the public and private sectors.


ISU Credo. Signed by Peter H. Diamandis, Todd B. Hawley and Robert D. Richards, April 12, 1995:

WE, THE FOUNDERS of the International Space University, do hereby set forth this Credo as the basis for fulfilling ISU's goals and full potential. INTERNATIONAL SPACE UNIVERSITY is an institution founded on the vision of a peaceful, prosperous and boundless future through the study, exploration and development of Space for the benefit of all humanity. ISU is an institution dedicated to international affiliations, collaboration, and open, scholarly pursuits related to outer space exploration and development. It is a place where students and faculty from all backgrounds are welcomed; where diversity of culture, philosophy, lifestyle, training and opinion are honored and nurtured. ISU is an institution which recognizes the importance of interdisciplinary studies for the successful exploration and development of space. ISU strives to promote an understanding and appreciation of the Cosmos through the constant evolution of new programs and curricula in relevant areas of study. To this end, ISU will be augmented by ''an expanding base of campus facilities, networks and affiliations both on and off the Earth ''[bold added]. ISU is an institution dedicated to the development of the human species, the preservation of its home planet, the increase of knowledge, the rational utilization of the vast resources of the Cosmos, and the sanctity of Life in all terrestrial and extraterrestrial manifestations. ISU is a place where students and scholars seek to understand the mysteries of the Cosmos and apply their knowledge to the betterment of the human condition. It is the objective of ISU to be an integral part of Humanity's movement into the Cosmos, and to carry forth all the principles and philosophies embodied in this Credo. THIS, THEN, IS THE CREDO OF ISU. For all who join ISU, we welcome you to a new and growing family. It is hoped that each of you, as leaders of industry, academia and government will work together to fulfill the goals set forth herein. Together, we shall aspire to the Stars with wisdom, vision and effort. (28)

Leaders of Faith

His Holiness the Dalai Lama, Leader of the Tibetan People (exiled in India)

His Holiness the Dalai Lama contributes to the discussion of alternative global power structures and also provides a unique view on the relationship between science and religion. The Dalai Lama offers a fresh perspective to those engaged in the emerging debate concerning the controversial "Intelligent Design" concept now being taught in some U.S. states. I have learned a great deal from my encounters with scientists, and I see no obstacle to engaging in dialogue with them even when their perspective is one of radical materialism... My concern is rather that we are apt to overlook the limitations of science. In replacing religion as the final source of knowledge in popular estimation, science begins to look a bit like another religion itself. With this comes a similar danger on the part of some of its adherents of blind faith in its principles and, correspondingly, to intolerance of alternative views. That this supplanting of religion has taken place is not surprising, however, given science's extraordinary achievements. Who could fail to be impressed at our ability to land people on the moon? (29) ...I believe the United Nations has a critical role to play...the United Nations is the only global institution capable of both influencing and formulating policy on behalf of the international community...One of the particular weaknesses of the United Nations as it is presently constituted is that although it provides a forum for individual governments, individual citizens cannot be heard there. It has no mechanism whereby those wishing to speak out against their governments can be heard...it would be worthwhile to establish a body whose principal task is to monitor human affairs from the perspective of ethics, an organization that might be called the World Council of the People (although no doubt a better name could be found). This would consist in a group of individuals drawn, as I imagine it, from a wide variety of backgrounds...with a common reputation for integrity and dedication to fundamental ethical and human values. Because this body would not actually be invested with political power, its pronouncements would not be legally binding. But by virtue of its independence - having no link with any one nation or group of nations, and no ideology - these deliberations would represent the conscience of the world. They would thus carry moral authority. (30)

When considering the matter of a governing structure for established human societies in outer space, at some point in our future the issue of interplanetary government will have to be broached. While many modern secular cultures around our world may justly demand firm separation of church and state in outer space, non-Western societies, which will no doubt be involved in joint human space exploration missions, may express different views. These views will need to be respected and considered by the human community.

Reverend Marc Wessels, Space Exploration and Theology Institute, Louisville, Kentucky (USA)

The Reverend and Dr. Marc Wessels offers a moderate view from a Christian perspective, applicable to a potential question of separation of church and state in human civilizations beyond Earth, in this case, Mars. While we live in an age of continuing scientific discovery and technological marvels, as humans we must never forget that our human nature is not limited to the physical plane. Humans are by nature spiritual creatures designed by a loving Creator with a higher purpose in mind. The world's religious traditions that have emerged over thousands of years articulate the perspective that humanity is called to understand its relationship to the natural world by acknowledging the Creator and Sustainer of all of life... Those who are adventurous enough to leave the "home planet" and dedicated enough to be "bringing life to Mars - and Mars to life" will be guided by some ethical construct, some theological principles which will under-gird their personal lives and that of the Martian community which is to be established.... Now, at the commencement of this challenge to establish human habitation on Mars, we need to confess that if we do not acknowledge the importance of religious values in our Martian venture we shall build a society which will be unstable and eventually collapse on its own due to spiritual decay. This Martian venture calls for the highest of human ideals to be brought to the forefront - the best of the world's religious values in the establishment. A word of scriptural truth reminds us that "Unless the Lord builds the house, the laborers labor in vain." (31)

Dr. Lawrence T. Geraty, President, La Sierra University, Riverside, California (USA)

Dr. Geraty's life has been dedicated to scholarship, science, the Christian Faith, education and archeological research while being a citizen of the world. He is known both locally in his community and around the globe for his positive oriented leadership ability. For hundreds of years, humans have longed to depart Earth to experience the mysteries of space. For fifty years a few fortunate people have actually begun the process. The myriad of reasons humans should, and will, migrate to space are well documented in this volume "Beyond Earth." I fully endorse the fundamental reason stated of improvement of humanity through peaceful exploration and utilization of space resources for solving the serious problems on Earth. And, though, as a Christian, I can imagine Christ's Second Coming as ultimately a mission to rescue us from ourselves, in the meantime, I do not disagree with Carl Sagan's view, stated in 1994, that we have a basic responsibility to our species to venture to other worlds because human survival is at stake.

My life dedicated to education and to the Christian faith, leads me to link the future of humans in space to the goals La Sierra University has etched in its seal and mission: "TO SEEK truth enlarging human understanding through scholarship; TO KNOW ourselves broadly educating the whole student; TO SERVE others contributing to the good of the global community." Thinking seriously and imagining about a future human adventure civilization has never attempted opens up a vast spectrum of unknowns and possibilities for hopes and dreams humans have expressed throughout history. The one huge variable, from both a scientific and human perspectives is how we humans in the 21stcentury design and plan for our penetration of the universe. This book is a solid step forward. And the authors of the "Code of Ethics" Chapter 17, end with the critical statement: "The answer to the question Cain asked of God, "Am I my brother's keeper?'" (Genesis: 4), for humans in space, needs to be "Yes" (original contribution by Dr. Lawrence T. Geraty).

Conclusion

In this chapter we have reviewed some of the views of global leadership from across our global society government, business, academia and faith. All of these views reflect the idea that while military relationships dominate the political agenda on Earth today, it is possible that the lure of human space pioneering can deliver us from our dangerous propensity for self-destruction. Perhaps the most compelling idea presented in this chapter is given by the current president of India, Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, calling for an International Space Force, with conceptual precedent set by President John F. Kennedy of the United States at the United Nations in 1963. Another interesting overlap of ideas concerns the moral responsibility of planetary defense against Earth crossing orbits of asteroids and comets, as articulated in the 1999 United Nations Conference on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (Vienna Declaration on Space and Human Development) and by two political representatives from the great State of California, spanning two decades and two political parties.

The views expressed by the selected leaders of business provide inspiration of what is truly possible in the near term, internationally and regionally while the selected leaders of academia and faith provide greater historical and spiritual backing for what is possible over the long term. By integrating these views into our daily approach to, or in support of space pioneering, it is our challenge and our hope that six billion together can achieve our constructive potential.

References

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  • (30) Ibid.
  • (31) Wessels, The Rev. Dr. Marc A. (2002). Religious values and the Martian venture. In Frank Crossman and Dr. Robert Zubrin of the Mars Society (Eds. and Comps.), On to Mars: colonizing a new world (pp. 186-191). Burlington, Ontario: CG Publishing, Apogee Space Press.


About The Author

Extracted from the book Beyond Earth - The Future of Humans in Space edited by Bob Krone ©2006 Apogee Books ISBN 978-1-894959-41-4

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